1. Edward Said Biography
2. Edward Said Books
3. Edward Said States Pdf Online
4. Edward Said States Pdf Book
5. Edward Said States

Oct 06, 2008  The saying 'a picture is worth a thousand words' actually does prove to be true in the photographs taken for Edward Said's essay 'States'. He artfully combines prose with pictures, until the two are not separate anymore and combine into a shared existence. The compelling argument he constructs within his work could not function in.

Orientalism is a 1978 book by Edward W. Said, in which the author discusses Orientalism, defined as the West's patronizing representations of 'The East'—the societies and peoples who inhabit the places of Asia, North Africa, and the Middle East. According to Said, orientalism (the Western scholarship about the Eastern World) is inextricably tied to the imperialist societies who produced it, which makes much Orientalist work inherently political and servile to power.^[1]

According to Said, in the Middle East, the social, economic, and cultural practices of the ruling Arab elites indicate they are imperial satraps who have internalized the romanticized 'Arab Culture' created by French, British and, later, American Orientalists; the examples include critical analyses of the colonial literature of Joseph Conrad, which conflates a people, a time, and a place into a narrative of incident and adventure in an exotic land.^[2]

The critical application of post-structuralism in the scholarship of Orientalism influenced the development of literary theory, cultural criticism, and the field of Middle Eastern studies, especially regarding how academics practice their intellectual inquiry when examining, describing, and explaining the Middle East.^[3] The scope of Said's scholarship established Orientalism as a foundation text in the field of post-colonial culture studies, which examines the denotations and connotations of Orientalism, and the history of a country's post-colonial period.^[4]

As a public intellectual, Edward Said debated Orientalism with historians and scholars of area studies, notably, the historian Bernard Lewis, who described the thesis of Orientalism as 'anti-Western'.^[5] For subsequent editions of Orientalism, Said wrote an 'Afterword' (1995)^[6] and a 'Preface' (2003)^[7] addressing criticisms of the content, substance, and style of the work as cultural criticism.

• 1Overview
• 2Influence
• 3Criticism
• 6Further reading

Overview[edit]

Orientalism is the exaggeration of difference, the presumption of Western superiority, and the application of clichéd analytical models for perceiving the Oriental world.^[8] As such, Orientalism is the source of the inaccurate cultural representations that form the foundations of Western thought and perception of the Eastern world, specifically in relation to the Middle East region.

The word ‘Orientalism’ refers to at least three separate but interrelated meanings: 1) an academic tradition or field; 2) a worldview, representation, and “style of thought based upon an ontological and epistemological distinction made between 'the Orient' and (most of the time) 'the Occident'”; and 3) as a powerful political instrument of domination.^[8]

The principal characteristic of Orientalism is a 'subtle and persistent Eurocentric prejudice against Arab-Islamic peoples and their culture', which derives from Western images of what is Oriental (cultural representations) that reduce the Orient to the fictional essences of 'Oriental peoples' and 'the places of the Orient'; such cultural representations dominate the communications (discourse) of Western peoples with and about non-Western peoples.^[9]

These cultural representations usually depict the ‘Orient’ as primitive, irrational, violent, despotic, fanatic, and essentially inferior to the westerner or native informant, and hence, ‘enlightenment’ can only occur when “traditional” and “reactionary” values are replaced by “contemporary” and “progressive” ideas that are either western or western-influenced.^[9]

Cultural background[edit]

In practice, the imperial and colonial enterprises of the West are facilitated by collaborating régimes of Europeanized Arab élites who have internalized the fictional, romanticized representations of Arabic culture—the Orientalism invented by French and English Orientalists, and continued in the twentieth century by American Orientalists.^[10] As such, Orientalist stereotypes of the cultures of the Eastern world have served, and continue to serve, as implicit justifications for the colonial ambitions and the imperial endeavours of the U.S. and the European powers. In that vein, about contemporary Orientalist stereotypes of Arabs and Muslims, Said said:

Edward Said Biography

So far as the United States seems to be concerned, it is only a slight overstatement to say that Moslems and Arabs are essentially seen as either oil suppliers or potential terrorists. Very little of the detail, the human density, the passion of Arab–Moslem life has entered the awareness of even those people whose profession it is to report the Arab world. What we have, instead, is a series of crude, essentialized caricatures of the Islamic world, presented in such a way as to make that world vulnerable to military aggression.

Thesis of Representation[edit]

Orientalism (1978) proposes that much of the Western study of Islamic civilization was an exercise in political intellectualism; a psychological exercise in the self-affirmation of 'European identity'; not an objective exercise of intellectual enquiry and the academic study of Eastern cultures. Therefore, Orientalism was a method of practical and cultural discrimination that was applied to non-European societies and peoples in order to establish European imperial domination. In justification of empire, the Orientalist claims to know more—essential and definitive knowledge—about the Orient than do the Orientals.^[8] Western writings about the Orient, the perceptions of the East presented in Orientalism, cannot be taken at face value, because they are cultural representations based upon fictional, Western images of the Orient. The history of European colonial rule and political domination of Eastern civilizations, distorts the intellectual objectivity of even the most knowledgeable, well-meaning, and culturally sympathetic Western Orientalist; thus did the term 'Orientalism' become a pejorative word regarding non–Western peoples and cultures:^[12]

I doubt if it is controversial, for example, to say that an Englishman in India, or Egypt, in the later nineteenth century, took an interest in those countries, which was never far from their status, in his mind, as British colonies. To say this may seem quite different from saying that all academic knowledge about India and Egypt is somehow tinged and impressed with, violated by, the gross political fact—and yet that is what I am saying in this study of Orientalism.

The notion of cultural representations as a means for domination and control would remain a central feature of Said’s critical approach proposed in Orientalism (1978). Towards the end of his life for instance, Said argued that while representations are essential for the function of human life and societies – as essential as language itself – what must cease are representations that are authoritatively repressive, because they do not provide any real possibilities for those being represented to intervene in this process.^[14]

The alternative to an exclusionary representational system for Said would be one that is “participatory and collaborative, non-coercive, rather than imposed”, yet he recognised the extreme difficulty involved in bringing about such an alternative.^[14] Difficult because advances in the “electronic transfer of images” is increasing media concentration in the hands of powerful, transnational conglomerates.^[14] This concentration is of such great magnitude that ‘dependent societies’ situated outside of the “central metropolitan zones” are greatly reliant upon these systems of representation for information about themselves - otherwise known as self-knowledge.^[14] For Said, this process of gaining self-knowledge by peripheral societies is insidious, because the system upon which they rely is presented as natural and real, such that it becomes practically unassailable.^[14]

Occidental and Oriental origins[edit]

Said said that the Western world sought to dominate the Eastern world for more than 2,000 years, since Classical antiquity (8th c. BC – AD 6th c.), the time of the play The Persians (472 BC), by Aeschylus, which celebrates a Greek victory (Battle of Salamis, 480 BC) against the Persians in the course of the Persian Wars (499–449 BC)—imperial conflict between the Greek West and the Persian East.^[15][16] Europe's long, military domination of Asia (empire and hegemony) made unreliable most Western texts about the Eastern world, because of the implicit cultural bias that permeates most Orientalism, which was not recognized by most Western scholars.

In the course of empire, after the physical-and-political conquest, there followed the intellectual conquest of a people, whereby Western scholars appropriated for themselves (as European intellectual property) the interpretation and translation of Oriental languages, and the critical study of the cultures and histories of the Oriental world.^[17] In that way, by using Orientalism as the intellectual norm for cultural judgement, Europeans wrote the history of Asia, and invented the 'exotic East' and the 'inscrutable Orient', which are cultural representations of peoples and things considered inferior to the peoples and things of the West.^[18]

The Other[edit]

Orientalism concluded that 'Western knowledge of the Eastern world', i.e. Orientalism fictionally depicts the Orient as an irrational, psychologically weak, and feminized, non-European Other, which is negatively contrasted with the rational, psychologically strong, and masculine West. Such a binary relation, in a hierarchy of weakness and strength, derives from the European psychological need to create a difference of cultural inequality, between West and East, which inequality is attributable to 'immutable cultural essences' inherent to Oriental peoples and things.^[19]

The notion of an Orient has played a central role in constructing European culture, and “helped to define Europe (or the West) as its contrasting image, idea, personality, experience”.^[15] The binary relationship of strong-West-and-weak-East reinforces the cultural stereotypes invented with literary, cultural, and historical texts that are more fictitious than factual; yet, which give the reader of Orientalist texts (history, travelogue, anthropology, etc.) a limited understanding of life in the Middle East, because Orientalism conflates the different societies of the Eastern world, into the homogeneous world of 'the Orient'.^[20]

Geopolitics and cultural hierarchy[edit]

The contemporary, historical impact of Orientalism (1978) was in explaining the How? and the Why? of imperial impotence; in the 1970s, to journalists, academics, and Orientalists, the Yom Kippur war (6–25 October 1973) and the OPEC petroleum embargo (October 1973 – March 1974) were recent modern history. The Western world had been surprised, by the pro-active and decisive actions of non-Western peoples, whom the ideology of Orientalism had defined as essentially weak societies and impotent countries. The geopolitical reality of their actions, of military and economic warfare, voided the fictional nature of Orientalist representations, attitudes, and opinions about the non-Western Other self.^[21]

The academy[edit]

Moving from the assertion that ‘pure knowledge’ is simply not possible (as all forms of knowledge are inevitably influenced by ideological standpoints), Said sought to explain the connection between ideology and literature. He argued that “Orientalism is not a mere political subject or field that is reflected passively by culture, scholarship, or institutions”, but rather “a distribution of geopolitical awareness into aesthetic, scholarly, economic, sociological, historical, and philological texts”.^[14] European literature for Said carried, actualised, and propelled Orientalist notions forward and constantly reinforced them. Put differently, literature produced by Europeans made possible the domination of the people of the ‘East’ because of the Orientalist discourse embedded within these texts. Literature here is understood as a kind of carrier and distributor of ideology.

Edward Said Books

Influence[edit]

The greatest intellectual impact of Orientalism (1978) was upon the fields of literary theory, cultural studies, and human geography, by way of which originated the field of Post-colonial studies. Edward Said's method of post-structuralist analysis derived from the analytic techniques of Jacques Derrida and Michel Foucault; and the perspectives to Orientalism presented by Abdul Latif Tibawi,^[22] Anouar Abdel-Malek,^[23]Maxime Rodinson,^[24] and Richard William Southern.^[25]

Post-colonial culture studies[edit]

As a work of cultural criticism, Orientalism (1978) is the foundation document in the field of Post-colonialism, because the thesis proved historically factual, true, and accurate for the periods studied; and for the How? and the Why? of the cultural representations of 'Orientals', 'The Orient', and 'The Eastern world' as presented in the mass communications media of the Western world.^[26]

Post-colonial theory studies the power and the continued dominance of Western ways of intellectual enquiry and the production of knowledge in the academic, intellectual, and cultural spheres of the de-colonised country. Said's survey concentrated upon the British and the French varieties of Orientalism that supported the British Empire and the French Empire as commercial enterprises constructed from colonialism, and gave perfunctory coverage, discussion, and analyses of German Orientalist scholarship.^[27]

Such disproportional investigation provoked criticism from opponents and embarrassment for supporters of Said, who, in 'Orientalism Reconsidered' (1985), said that no one opponent provided a rationale, by which limited coverage of German Orientalism limits either the scholarly value or the practical application of Orientalism as a cultural study.^[28] In the Afterword to the 1995 edition of Orientalism, Said presented follow-up refutations of the criticisms that the Orientalist and historian Bernard Lewis made against the book's first edition (1978).^[29][30]

Literary criticism[edit]

In the fields of literary criticism and of cultural studies, the notable Indian scholars of post-colonialism were Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak (In Other Worlds: Essays in Cultural Politics, 1987) whose essay Can the Subaltern Speak? (1988) also became a foundational text of Post-colonial culture studies;^[31]Homi K. Bhabha (Nation and Narration, 1990);^[32]Ronald Inden (Imagining India, 1990);^[33]Gyan Prakash ('Writing Post–Orientalist Histories of the Third World: Perspectives from Indian Historiography', 1990);^[34]Nicholas Dirks (Castes of Mind, 2001);^[35] and Hamid Dabashi (Iran: A People Interrupted, 2007).

In White Mythologies: Writing History and the West (1990), Robert J. C. Young reported Post-colonial explanations of the 'How?' and the 'Why?' of the nature of the post-colonial world, the peoples, and their discontents;^[36][37] which verify the efficacy of the critical method applied in Orientalism (1978), especially in the field of Middle Eastern studies.^[3]

In the late 1970s, the survey range of Orientalism (1978) did not include the genre of Orientalist painting or any other visual arts, despite the book-cover featuring a detail-image of The Snake Charmer (1880), a popular, 19th-century Orientalist painting—to which the writer Linda Nochlin applied Said's method of critical analysis 'with uneven results'.^[38] In the field of epistemological studies, Orientalism is an extended application of methods of critical analysis developed by the philosopher Michel Foucault.^[39] The anthropologist Talal Asad said that the book Orientalism is:

not only a catalogue of Western prejudices about and misrepresentations of Arabs and Muslims' ... [but an investigation and analysis of the] authoritative structure of Orientalist discourse—the closed, self-evident, self-confirming character of that distinctive discourse, which is reproduced, again and again, through scholarly texts, travelogues, literary works of imagination, and the obiter dicta of public men-of-affairs.^[40]

The historian Gyan Prakash said that Orientalism describes how 'the hallowed image of the Orientalist, as an austere figure, unconcerned with the world and immersed in the mystery of foreign scripts and languages, has acquired a dark hue as the murky business of ruling other peoples, now forms the essential and enabling background of his or her scholarship' about the Orient; without colonial imperialism, there would be no Orientalism.^[41]

Oriental Europe[edit]

In Eastern Europe, Milica Bakić-Hayden developed the concept of Nesting Orientalisms (1992), based upon and derived from the work of the historian Larry Wolff (Inventing Eastern Europe: The Map of Civilization on the Mind of the Enlightenment, 1994), and the ideas Edward Said presented in Orientalism (1978).^[42]

The Bulgarian historian Maria Todorova (Imagining the Balkans, 1997) presented her ethnologic concept of Nesting Balkanisms (Ethnologia Balkanica,1997), which is thematically extended and theoretically derived from Milica Bakić-Hayden's Nesting Orientalisms.^[43]

Moreover, in 'A Stereotype, Wrapped in a Cliché, Inside a Caricature: Russian Foreign Policy and Orientalism' (2010), James D. J. Brown said that Western stereotypes of Russia, Russianness, and things Russian are cultural representations derived from the literature of 'Russian studies', which is a field of enquiry little afflicted with the misconceptions of Russia-as-the-Other, but does display the characteristics of Orientalism—the exaggeration of difference, the presumption of Western cultural superiority, and the application of cliché in analytical models. That overcoming such intellectual malaise requires that area scholars choose to break their 'mind-forg'd manacles' and deeply reflect upon the basic cultural assumptions of their area-studies scholarship.^[44]

Criticism[edit]

Orientalism proved intellectually, professionally, and personally controversial. The thesis, content, substance, and style were much criticised by Orientalist academics, such as Albert Hourani (A History of the Arab Peoples, 1991), Robert Graham Irwin (For Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and their Enemies, 2006), Nikki Keddie (An Islamic Response to Imperialism, 1968), and Bernard Lewis ('The Question of Orientalism', Islam and the West, 1993).^[45][46][47]

In a review of a book by Ibn Warraq, American classicist Bruce Thornton dismissed Orientalism as an 'incoherent amalgam of dubious postmodern theory, sentimental Third Worldism, glaring historical errors, and Western guilt'.^[48]

In the book-review article 'Enough Said' (2007), about Dangerous Knowledge (2007), by Robert Irwin, in the preface paragraphs, Martin Kramer recapitulates the professional trials and tribulations of and repercussions to Orientalists caused by Orientalism (1978):

the British historian Robert Irwin is the sort of scholar who, in times past, would have been proud to call himself an Orientalist ... someone who mastered difficult languages, like Arabic and Persian, and then spent years bent over manuscripts, in heroic efforts of decipherment and interpretation. In Dangerous Knowledge, Irwin relates that the 19th-century English Arabist Edward William Lane, compiler of the great Arabic-English Lexicon [1840], 'used to complain that he had become so used to the cursive calligraphy of his Arabic manuscripts that he found Western print a great strain on his eyes.'

Orientalism, in its heyday, was a branch of knowledge as demanding and rigorous as its near cousin, Egyptology. The first International Congress of Orientalists met in 1873; its name was not changed until a full century later. But there are no self-declared Orientalists today. The reason is that the late Edward Said turned the word into a pejorative. In his 1978 book Orientalism, the Palestinian-born Said, a professor of comparative literature at Columbia University, claimed that an endemic Western prejudice against the East had congealed into a modern ideology of racist supremacy—a kind of anti-Semitism directed against Arabs and Muslims. Throughout Europe's history, announced Said, 'every European, in that he could say about the Orient, was a racist, an imperialist, and almost totally ethnocentric.'

In a semantic sleight of hand, Said appropriated the term 'Orientalism', as a label for the ideological prejudice he described, thereby, neatly implicating the scholars who called themselves Orientalists. At best, charged Said, the work of these scholars was biased, so as to confirm the inferiority of Islam. At worst, Orientalists had directly served European empires, showing proconsuls how best to conquer and control Muslims. To substantiate his indictment, Said cherry-picked evidence, ignored whatever contradicted his thesis, and filled the gaps with conspiracy theories.

Nonetheless, the literary critic Paul De Man said that, as a literary critic, 'Said took a step further than any other modern scholar of his time, something I dare not do. I remain in the safety of rhetorical analysis, where criticism is the second-best thing I do.'^[49]

History[edit]

In the book review, 'The Mightier Pen? Edward Said and the Double Standards of Inside-out Colonialism: a review of Culture and Imperialism, by Edward Said' (1993), Ernest Gellner said that Said's contention of Western domination of the Eastern world for more than 2,000 years was unsupportable, because, until the late 17th century, the Ottoman Empire (1299–1923) was a realistic military, cultural, and religious threat to (Western) Europe.^[50]

In 'Disraeli as an Orientalist: The Polemical Errors of Edward Said' (2005), Mark Proudman noted incorrect 19th-century history in Orientalism, that the geographic extent of the British Empire was not from Egypt to India in the 1880s, because the Ottoman Empire and the Persian Empire in that time intervened between those poles of empire.^[51] Moreover, at the zenith of the imperial era, European colonial power in the Eastern world never was absolute, it was relative and much dependent upon local collaborators — princes, rajahs, and warlords—who nonetheless often subverted the imperial and hegemonic aims of the colonialist power.^[52]

In For Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and Their Enemies (2006), Robert Irwin said that Said's concentrating the scope of Orientalism to the Middle East, especially Palestine and Egypt, was a mistake, because the Mandate of Palestine (1920–1948) and British Egypt (1882–1956) only were under direct European control for a short time, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries; thus are poor examples for Said's theory of Western cultural imperialism. That Orientalism should have concentrated upon good examples of imperialism and cultural hegemony, such as the British Raj of India (1858–1947) and Russia's dominions in Asia (1721–1917), but he did not, because, as a public intellectual, Edward Said was more interested in making political points about the politics of the Middle East, in general, and of Palestine, in particular.^[53] Moreover, that by unduly concentrating on British and French Orientalism, Said ignored the domination of 19th century Oriental studies by German and Hungarian academics and intellectuals, whose countries did not possess an Eastern empire.^[54] Irwin's book was later criticized by Amir Taheri, writing in Asharq Al-Awsat, when he listed a number of factual and editing errors that Irwin makes in the book, also noting a number of prominent Orientalists left unmentioned.^[55]

American scholar of religion Jason Ānanda Josephson has argued that data from Japan complicates Said's thesis about Orientalism as a field linked to imperial power. Not only did Europeans study Japan without any hope of colonizing it, but Japanese academics played a prominent role as informants and interlocutors in this academic discipline, providing information both on their own practices and history and on the history of China.^[56] Moreover, Josephson has documented that European conferences on East Asia predate European conferences on the Middle East described by Said, necessitating an alternative chronology of Western academic interest in the Orient.^[57]

Professional[edit]

In the article 'Said's Splash' (2001), Martin Kramer said that, fifteen years after publication of Orientalism (1978), the UCLA historian Nikki Keddie (whom Said praised in Covering Islam, 1981) who originally had praised Orientalism as an 'important, and, in many ways, positive' book, had changed her mind. In Approaches to the History of the Middle East (1994), Keddie criticised Said's work on Orientalism, for the unfortunate consequences upon her profession as an historian:

I think that there has been a tendency in the Middle East field to adopt the word 'orientalism' as a generalized swear-word, essentially referring to people who take the 'wrong' position on the Arab–Israeli dispute, or to people who are judged too 'conservative'. It has nothing to do with whether they are good or not good in their disciplines. So, 'orientalism', for many people, is a word that substitutes for thought and enables people to dismiss certain scholars and their works. I think that is too bad. It may not have been what Edward Said meant at all, but the term has become a kind of slogan.

Literature[edit]

In the article, 'Edward Said's Shadowy Legacy' (2008), Robert Irwin said that Said ineffectively distinguished among writers of different centuries and genres of Orientalist literature. That the disparate examples, such as the German poet Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832) who never travelled to the Orient; the French novelist Gustave Flaubert (1821–1880) who briefly toured Egypt; the French Orientalist Ernest Renan (1823–1892), whose anti-Semitism voided his work; and the British Arabist Edward William Lane (1801–1876), who compiled the Arabic–English Lexicon (1863–93)—did not constitute a comprehensive scope of investigation or critical comparison.^[59] In that vein, in Defending the West: A Critique of Edward Said's Orientalism (2007), Ibn Warraq earlier had said that in Orientalism (1978) Said had constructed a binary-opposite representation, a fictional European stereotype that would counter-weigh the Oriental stereotype. Being European is the only common trait among such a temporally and stylistically disparate group of literary Orientalists.^[60]

Philosophy[edit]

In The Asiatic Society of Bengal and the Discovery of India's Past (1988) O.P. Kejariwal said that with the creation of a monolithic Occidentalism to oppose the Orientalism of Western discourse with the Eastern world, Said had failed to distinguish, between the paradigms of Romanticism and the Enlightenment, and ignored the differences among Orientalists; and that he failed to acknowledge the positive contributions of Orientalists who sought kinship, between the worlds of the East and the West, rather than to create an artificial 'difference' of cultural inferiority and superiority; such a man was William Jones (1746–1794), the British philologist–lexicographer who proposed that Indo–European languages are interrelated.^[61]

In the essay The Debate About 'Orientalism', Harry Oldmeadow said 'that Said’s treatment of Orientalism, particularly the assertion of the necessary nexus with imperialism, is over-stated and unbalanced.' He objected to Said's view that Western Orientalists were projecting upon the 'artificial screen called “the East” or “the Orient”, but that such projection was only a small part of the relationship. That Said failed to adequately distinguish between the genuine experiences of the Orient and the cultural projections of Westerners. He further criticized Said for using reductionist models of religion and spirituality, that are based on 'Marxist/Foucauldian/psychoanalytic thought'.^[62]

George Landlow argued that Said assumed that such projection and its harmful consequences are a purely Western phenomenon, when in reality all societies do this to each other. This was a particular issue given Said treated Western colonialism as unique, which Landlow regarded as unsatisfactory for a work of serious scholarship.^[63]

Personality[edit]

In the sociological article, 'Review: Who is Afraid of Edward Said?' (1999) Biswamoy Pati said that in making ethnicity and cultural background the tests of moral authority and intellectual objectivity in studying the Oriental world, Said drew attention to his personal identity as a Palestinian and as a subaltern of the British Empire, in the Near East.^[64] Therefore, from the perspective of the Orientalist academic, Said's personal background might, arguably, exclude him from writing about the Oriental world, hindered by an upper-class birth, an Anglophone upbringing, a British-school education in Cairo, residency in the U.S., a university-professor job; and categorical statements, such as: 'any and all representations ... are embedded, first, in the language, and then, in the culture, institutions, and political ambience of the representer ... [the cultural representations are] interwoven with a great many other things, besides 'the Truth', which is, itself, a representation.'^[65]

Hence, in the article 'Orients and Occidents: Colonial Discourse Theory and the Historiography of the British Empire', D.A. Washbrook said that Said and his academic cohort indulge in excessive cultural relativism, which intellectual excess traps them in a 'web of solipsism', which limits conversation exclusively to 'cultural representations' and to denying the existence of anyobjective truth.^[66] That Said and his followers fail to distinguish between the types and degrees of Orientalism represented by the news media and popular culture (e.g., the light Orientalism of the children's movie Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom, 1984), and heavy academic Orientalism about the language and literature, history and culture of the peoples of the Eastern world.^[67][68]

In the article 'Orientalism Now' (1995), the historian Gyan Prakash said that Edward Said had explored fields of Orientalism already surveyed by his predecessors and contemporaries, such as V. G. Kiernan, Bernard S. Cohn, and Anwar Abdel Malek, who also had studied, reported, and interpreted the social relationship that makes the practice of imperialism intellectually, psychologically, and ethically feasible; that is, the relationship between European imperial rule and European representations of the non-European Other self, the colonised people.^[69] That, as an academic investigator, Said already had been preceded in the critical analysis of the production of Orientalist knowledge and about Western methods of Orientalist scholarship, because, in the 18th century, 'Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti [1753–1825], the Egyptian chronicler, and a witness to Napoleon's invasion of Egypt in 1798, for example, had no doubt that the expedition was as much an epistemological as military conquest'. Nonetheless, George Landow, of Brown University, who criticized Said's scholarship and contested his conclusions, acknowledged that Orientalism is a major work of cultural criticism.^[70]

Posthumous[edit]

In October 2003, one month after the death of Edward W. Said (1935–2003), the Lebanese newspaper Daily Star recognized the intellectual import of the book, saying 'Said's critics agree with his admirers that he has single-handedly effected a revolution in Middle Eastern studies in the U.S.' and that 'U.S. Middle Eastern Studies were taken over, by Edward Said's postcolonial studies paradigm'.^[71]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

1. ^The New Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought, Third Edition. (1999) p. 617.
2. ^The Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism, Third Edition (1994), pp. 642.
3. ^ ^abStephen Howe, 'Dangerous mind?', New Humanist, Vol. 123, November/December 2008
4. ^The Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism, Third Edition (1994), pp. 642–43, 581–83
5. ^Oleg Grabar, Edward Said, Bernard Lewis, 'Orientalism: An Exchange', New York Review of Books, Vol. 29, No. 13. 12 August 1982. Accessed 4 January 2010.
6. ^Orientalism: 'Afterword' pp. 329–352.
7. ^Orientalism: 'Preface,' pp. xi-xxiii.
8. ^ ^abSaid, Edward. Orientalism (1978) pp. 2-3.
9. ^Marandi, S.M. (2009). 'Constructing an Axis of Evil: Iranian Memoirs in the 'Land of the Free''. The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences: 24.
10. ^'Between Worlds', Reflections on Exile, and Other Essays (2002) pp. 556–57
11. ^Said, Edward (26 April 1980). 'Islam Through Western Eyes'. The Nation. Retrieved 6 June 2013.
12. ^Buruma, Ian (16 June 2008). 'Orientalism today is just another form of insult'. The Guardian. Retrieved 6 June 2013.
13. ^Said, Edward. Orientalism, p. 11.
14. ^ ^abcdefSaid, Edward (2001). Viswanathan, Gauri (ed.). Power, Politics, and Culture: Interviews with Edward W. Said. New York: Vintage. p. 12.
15. ^ ^abSaid, Edward. Orientalism (1978) pp. 1-2.
16. ^The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature, M.C. Howatson, Editor. 1990, p. 423.
17. ^The Penguin Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory, Third Edition, J.A. Cuddon, Editor. 1991, pp. 660–65.
18. ^Said, Edward. Orientalism (1978) pp. 38-41.
19. ^Said, Edward. Orientalism (1978) pp. 65–67.
20. ^Edward Said and The Production of KnowledgeArchived 2008-10-29 at the Wayback Machine, by Sethi, Arjun (University of Maryland) accessed 20 April 2007.
21. ^Said, Edward. 'Afterword', Orientalism (1978) pp. 329–352.
22. ^Tibawi, A.L. (1964). 'English-speaking Orientalists: A Critique of Their Approach to Islam and Arab Nationalism'. Islamic Quarterly. 8: 25–45.
23. ^Abdel-Malek, Anour (1963). 'L'orientalisme en crise' ('Orientalism in Crisis')'. Diogène. 44: 109–41.
24. ^'Bilan des études mohammadiennes', Revue Historique (1963) p. 465.1.
25. ^Southern, Richard William. Western views of Islam in the Middle Ages (1978) Cambridge:Harvard UP, 1962.
26. ^Terry Eagleton, book review of For Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and Their Enemies, by Robert Irwin. [1], New Statesman, 13 February 2006.
27. ^Eagleton, Terry. Eastern Block (book review of For Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and Their Enemies, 2006, by Robert Irwin)Archived 18 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine, New Statesman, 13 February 2006.
28. ^Orientalism pp. 18–19.
29. ^Edward Said, 'Orientalism Reconsidered', Cultural Critique magazine, No. 1, Autumn 1985, p. 96.
30. ^Orientalism 329–54.
31. ^Chakravorty Spivak, Gayatri. In Other Worlds: Essays in Cultural Politics, London: Methuen, 1987.
32. ^Bhaba, Homi K. Nation and Narration, New York & London: Routledge, Chapman & Hall, 1990.
33. ^Inden, Ronald. Imagining India, New York: Oxford UP, 1990.
34. ^Prakash, Gyan (April 1990). 'Writing Post-Orientalist Histories of the Third World: Perspectives from Indian Historiography'. Comparative Studies in Society and History. 32 (2): 383–408. doi:10.1017/s0010417500016534. JSTOR178920.
35. ^Dirks, Nicholas. Castes of Mind, Princeton: Princeton UP, 2001.
36. ^Robert Young, White Mythologies: Writing History and the West, New York & London: Routledge, 1990.
37. ^Emory University, Department of English, Introduction to Postcolonial Studies
38. ^Tromans, Nicholas, and others, The Lure of the East, British Orientalist Painting, pp. 6, 11 (quoted), pp. 23–25, 2008, Tate Publishing, ISBN978-1-85437-733-3.
39. ^Clifford, J (1980). 'Orientalism [book review]'. History & Theory. 19 (2): 204–223. doi:10.2307/2504800. JSTOR2504800.
40. ^Asad, T. (1980) English Historical Review, p. 648
41. ^Prakash, G (1995). 'Orientalism Now'. History and Theory. 34 (3): 199–200. doi:10.2307/2505621. JSTOR2505621.
42. ^Ashbrook, John E (2008). Buying and Selling the Istrian Goat: Istrian Regionalism, Croatian Nationalism, and EU Enlargement. New York: Peter Lang. p. 22. ISBN90-5201-391-8. OCLC213599021. Milica Bakić-Hayden built on Wolff's work, incorporating the ideas of Edward Said's 'Orientalism'
43. ^Ethnologia Balkanica. Sofia: Prof. M. Drinov Academic Pub. House. 1995. p. 37. OCLC41714232. The idea of 'Nesting Orientalisms', in Bakić-Hayden (1995), and the related concept of 'Nesting balkanisms', in Todorova (1997) ...
44. ^Brown, James D.J. (2010). 'A Stereotype, Wrapped in a Cliché, inside a Caricature: Russian Foreign Policy and Orientalism'. Politics. 30: 149–159. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9256.2010.01378.x.
45. ^Bernard Lewis, 'The Question of Orientalism', Islam and the West, London, 1993: pp. 99, 118.
46. ^Robert Irwin, For Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and Their Enemies, London: Allen Lane, 2006.
47. ^Martin Kramer, 'Enough Said (review of Robert Irwin, Dangerous Knowledge)', March 2007. Retrieved 5 January 2010.
48. ^Thornton, Bruce (17 August 2007). 'Golden Threads'. City Journal. Retrieved 7 July 2017.
49. ^Nosal, K R. American Criticism, New York Standard, New York. 2002
50. ^Ernest Gellner, 'The Mightier Pen? Edward Said and the Double Standards of Inside-out Colonialism' (rev. of Culture and Imperialism by Edward Said), Times Literary Supplement, 19 February 1993: pp. 3–4.
51. ^Mark F. Proudman, 'Disraeli as an Orientalist: The Polemical Errors of Edward SaidArchived 2007-06-30 at the Wayback Machine,' Journal of the Historical Society, 5 December 2005.
52. ^C. A. BaylyEmpire and Information, Delhi: Cambridge UP, 1999: pp. 25, 143, 282.
53. ^Robert Irwin For Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and Their Enemies London: Allen Lane, 2006: pp. 159–60, 281–82.
54. ^Irwin, For Lust of Knowing: pp. 8, 155–66.
55. ^http://english.aawsat.com/2006/05/article55266710/for-lust-of-knowing
56. ^Josephson, Jason Ānanda (2012). The Invention of Religion in Japan. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 245–50.
57. ^Josephson, Jason Ānanda (2012). The Invention of Religion in Japan. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 192–4.
58. ^'Said's Splash'Archived 2009-10-26 at WebCiteIvory Towers on Sand: The Failure of Middle Eastern Studies in America, Policy Papers 58 (Washington, D.C.: Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 2001)
59. ^Robert Irwin, 'Edward Said's shadowy legacy', Times Literary Supplement, 7 May 2008. Accessed 5 January 2010.
60. ^Warraq, Ibn (2007). Defending the West: A Critique of Edward Said's Orientalism. Prometheus. p. 556. ISBN978-1591024842.
61. ^O.P. Kejariwal, The Asiatic Society of Bengal and the Discovery of India's Past, Delhi: Oxford UP, 1988: pp. ix–xi, 221–233.
62. ^Oldmeadow, Harry (2004). Journeys East: 20th Century Western Encounters with Eastern Religious Traditions. World Wisdom, Inc. ISBN0941532577.
63. ^'Edward W. Said's Orientalism'. Archived from the original on 2005-12-25. Retrieved 2019-09-19.
64. ^Biswamoy Pati, 'Review: Who Is Afraid of Edward Said?'. Social Scientist, Vol. 27. No. 9/10 (Sept.–Oct. 1999), pp. 79.
65. ^Orientalism: p. 272
66. ^D.A. Washbrook, 'Orients and Occidents: Colonial Discourse Theory and the Historiography of the British Empire', in Historiography, vol. 5 of The Oxford History of the British Empire p. 607.
67. ^Said, Edward, 'Afterword', Orientalism (1978) 1995 ed. p. 347.
68. ^Kaizaad Navroze Kotwal, 'Steven Spielberg's Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom as Virtual Reality: The Orientalist and Colonial Legacies of Gunga Din,'The Film Journal no. 12, April 2005.
69. ^Prakash, G. (1995). 'Orientalism Now'. History and Theory. 34 (3): 200.
70. ^'Edward W. Said's Orientalism'. Archived from the original on 2005-12-25. Retrieved 2005-12-19.
71. ^Daily Star, 20 October 2003

Further reading[edit]

• Ankerl, Guy Coexsiting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Mulsim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. Geneva: INU Press, 2000. ISBN2-88155-004-5
• Balagangadhara, S. N. 'The Future of the Present: Thinking Through Orientalism', Cultural Dynamics, Vol. 10, No. 2, (1998), pp. 101–23. ISSN 0921-3740.
• Benjamin, Roger Orientalist Aesthetics, Art, Colonialism and French North Africa: 1880–1930, U. of California Press, 2003
• Biddick, Kathleen (2000). 'Coming Out of Exile: Dante on the Orient(alism) Express'. The American Historical Review. 105: 1234–1249. doi:10.2307/2651411.
• Brown, James D.J. (2010). 'A Stereotype, Wrapped in a Cliché, Inside a Caricature: Russian Foreign Policy and Orientalism'. Politics. 30 (3): 149–159. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9256.2010.01378.x.
• Fleming, K.E. (2000). 'Orientalism, the Balkans, and Balkan Historiography'. The American Historical Review. 105: 1218–1233. doi:10.2307/2651410.
• Halliday, Fred (1993). ''Orientalism' and Its Critics'. British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies. 20: 145–163. doi:10.1080/13530199308705577.
• Irwin, Robert. For lust of knowing: The Orientalists and their enemies. London: Penguin/Allen Lane, 2006 (ISBN0-7139-9415-0)
• Kabbani, Rana. Imperial Fictions: Europe's Myths of Orient. London: Pandora Press, 1994 (ISBN0-04-440911-7).
• Kalmar, Ivan Davidson & Derek Penslar. Orientalism and the Jews Brandeis 2005
• Klein, Christina. Cold War Orientalism: Asia in the Middlebrow Imagination, 1945–1961. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003 (ISBN0-520-22469-8; paperback, ISBN0-520-23230-5).
• Knight, Nathaniel. 'Grigor'ev in Orenburg, 1851–1862: Russian Orientalism in the Service of Empire?', Slavic Review, Vol. 59, No. 1. (Spring, 2000), pp. 74–100.
• Kontje, Todd. German Orientalisms. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2004 (ISBN0-472-11392-5).
• Little, Douglas. American Orientalism: The United States and the Middle East Since 1945. (2nd ed. 2002 ISBN1-86064-889-4).
• Lowe, Lisa. Critical Terrains: French and British Orientalisms. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992 (ISBN978-0-8014-8195-6).
• Macfie, Alexander Lyon. Orientalism. White Plains, NY: Longman, 2002 (ISBN0-582-42386-4).
• MacKenzie, John. Orientalism: History, theory and the arts. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995 (ISBN0-7190-4578-9).
• Murti, Kamakshi P. India: The Seductive and Seduced 'Other' of German Orientalism. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2001 (ISBN0-313-30857-8).
• Minuti, Rolando: Oriental Despotism, European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2012, retrieved: June 6, 2012.
• Noble dreams, wicked pleasures: Orientalism in America, 1870–1930 by Holly Edwards (Editor). Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000 (ISBN0-691-05004-X).
• Orientalism and the Jews, edited by Ivan Davidson Kalmar and Derek Penslar. Waltham, MA: Brandeis University Press, 2004 (ISBN1-58465-411-2).
• Oueijan, Naji. The Progress of an Image: The east in English Literature. New York: Peter Lang Publishers, 1996.
• Peltre, Christine. Orientalism in Art. New York: Abbeville Publishing Group (Abbeville Press, Inc.), 1998 (ISBN0-7892-0459-2).
• Prakash, Gyan. 'Orientalism Now', History and Theory, Vol. 34, No. 3. (Oct., 1995), pp. 199–212.
• Rotter, Andrew J. 'Saidism without Said: Orientalism and U.S. Diplomatic History', The American Historical Review, Vol. 105, No. 4. (Oct., 2000), pp. 1205–1217.
• Varisco, Daniel Martin. 'Reading Orientalism: Said and the Unsaid.' Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2007. (ISBN978-0-295-98752-1).

Articles[edit]

• Alessandrini, Anthony, Aug 23, 2018, Essential Readings: Said’s Orientalism, Its Interlocutors, and Its Influence
• Brian Whitaker, 'Distorting Desire', review, Joseph Abbad, Desiring Arabs, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007, from Al-Bab.com, on Reflections of a Renegade blog site
• 'Edward Said and the Production of Knowledge' at the Wayback Machine (archived August 8, 2010), CitizenTrack
• Martin Kramer, 'Edward Said's Splash', Ivory Towers on Sand: The Failure of Middle Eastern Studies in America, Washington: The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 2001, pp. 27–43.
• Andre Gingrich, 'Frontier Orientalism', Camp Catatonia blog
• 'Orientalism as a tool of Colonialism' at the Wayback Machine (archived August 8, 2010), Citizen Track
• Iskandar, Adel (July 2003). 'Whenever, Wherever! The Discourse of Orientalist Transnationalism in the Construction of Shakira'.

External links[edit]

• Encountering Islam, by Algis Valiunas, a critique of Orientalism (1978). The Claremont Review of Books.
• The Edward Said Archive, articles by and about Edward Said and his works.
• An Introduction to Edward Said, Orientalism, and Postcolonial Literary Studies, by Amardeep Singh
• Orientalism (1978), book review by Malcolm H. Kerrreview
• Said's Splash at the Wayback Machine (archived July 14, 2014), by Martin Kramer, about the book's academic consequences on the field of Middle Eastern studies.

Edward Wadie Said (/sɑːˈiːd/; Arabic: إدوارد وديع سعيد‎ [wædiːʕ sæʕiːd], Idwārd Wadīʿ Saʿīd; 1 November 1935 – 24 September 2003) was a professor of literature at Columbia University, a public intellectual, and a founder of the academic field of postcolonial studies.^[3] A Palestinian American born in Mandatory Palestine, he was a citizen of the United States by way of his father, a U.S. Army veteran.

Educated in the Western canon, at British and American schools, Said applied his education and bi-cultural perspective to illuminating the gaps of cultural and political understanding between the Western world and the Eastern world, especially about the Israeli–Palestinian conflict in the Middle East; his principal influences were Antonio Gramsci, Frantz Fanon, Aimé Césaire, Michel Foucault, and Theodor Adorno.^[4]

As a cultural critic, Said is known for the book Orientalism (1978), a critique of the cultural representations that are the bases of Orientalism—how the Western world perceives the Orient.^[5][6][7][8] Said's model of textual analysis transformed the academic discourse of researchers in literary theory, literary criticism, and Middle-Eastern studies—how academics examine, describe, and define the cultures being studied.^[9][10] As a foundational text, Orientalism was controversial among scholars of Oriental Studies, philosophy, and literature.^[11][4]

As a public intellectual, Said was a controversial member of the Palestinian National Council, because he publicly criticized Israel and the Arab countries, especially the political and cultural policies of Muslim régimes who acted against the national interests of their peoples.^[12][13] Said advocated the establishment of a Palestinian state to ensure equal political and human rights for the Palestinians in Israel, including the right of return to the homeland. He defined his oppositional relation with the status quo as the remit of the public intellectual who has 'to sift, to judge, to criticize, to choose, so that choice and agency return to the individual' man and woman.

In 1999, with his friend Daniel Barenboim, Said co-founded the West–Eastern Divan Orchestra, based in Seville, which comprises young Israeli, Palestinian, and Arab musicians. Besides being an academic, Said was also an accomplished pianist, and, with Barenboim, co-authored the book Parallels and Paradoxes: Explorations in Music and Society (2002), a compilation of their conversations about music.^[14]

Said died of leukemia on 24 September 2003.^[12][15]

• 1Life and career
• 2Literary production
• 3Politics
• 8References

Life and career

Early life

Edward Wadie Said was born on 1 November 1935,^[16] to Hilda Said and Wadie Said, a businessman in Jerusalem, then part of British-governed Mandatory Palestine (1920–48).^[17] Wadie Said was a Palestinian man who soldiered in the U.S. Army component of the American Expeditionary Forces (1917–19), commanded by General John J. Pershing, in the First World War (1914–18). Afterwards, that war-time military service earned American citizenship to Said père and his family. Edward's mother, Hilda Said was born Lebanese and raised in Nazareth, Ottoman Empire.^[18]

In 1919, in partnership with a cousin, Wadie Said established a stationery business in Cairo. Like her husband, Hilda Said was an Arab Christian, and, although the Said family practiced the Protestant Christianity,^[19][20] Edward was agnostic.^{[citation needed]} Moreover, his sister Rosemarie Saïd Zahlan (1937–2006) also pursued an academic career.^{[21][22][23][24][25]}

Education

Said lived his boyhood between the worlds of Cairo and Jerusalem; in 1947, he attended St. George's School, Jerusalem, a British school of stern Anglican Christian cast. About being there, Said said:

With an unexceptionally Arab family name like 'Saïd', connected to an improbably British first name (my mother much admired Edward VIII the Prince of Wales in 1935, the year of my birth) I was an uncomfortably anomalous student all through my early years: a Palestinian going to school in Egypt, with an English first name, an American passport, and no certain identity, at all. To make matters worse, Arabic, my native language, and English, my school language, were inextricably mixed: I have never known which was my first language, and have felt fully at home in neither, although I dream in both. Every time I speak an English sentence, I find myself echoing it in Arabic, and vice versa.

By the late 1940s, Edward's schooling included the Egyptian branch of Victoria College, Alexandria (VC), where classmates included (King) Hussein of Jordan, and the Egyptian, Syrian, Jordanian, and Saudi Arabian boys whose academic careers would progress to their becoming ministers, prime ministers, and leading businessmen in their respective countries.^[27]

In that colonial time and place, the function of a British colonial school, such as VC, was to educate selections of young men from the Arab and Levantine ruling classes, to become the Anglicized post-colonial administrators who would rule their countries, upon British decolonization. About Victoria College, Edward said:

The moment one became a student at Victoria College, one was given the student handbook, a series of regulations governing every aspect of school life—the kind of uniform we were to wear, what equipment was needed for sports, the dates of school holidays, bus schedules, and so on. But the school's first rule, emblazoned on the opening page of the handbook, read: 'English is the language of the school; students caught speaking any other language will be punished.' Yet, there were no native speakers of English among the students. Whereas the masters were all British, we were a motley crew of Arabs of various kinds, Armenians, Greeks, Italians, Jews, and Turks, each of whom had a native language that the school had explicitly outlawed. Yet all, or nearly all, of us spoke Arabic—many spoke Arabic and French—and so we were able to take refuge in a common language, in defiance of what we perceived as an unjust colonial structure.

In 1951, Victoria College expelled Edward, who had proved a troublesome boy, despite being a student of great intelligence and much academic achievement; he then attended Northfield Mount Hermon School, Massachusetts, a socially élite, college-prep boarding-school where he lived a difficult year of social alienation. Nonetheless, the student Edward excelled, and achieved the rank of either first (valedictorian) or second (salutatorian) in a class of one hundred sixty students.^[26]

In retrospect, being sent far from the Middle East (Egypt) he viewed as a parental decision much influenced by 'the prospects of deracinated people, like us the Palestinians, being so uncertain that it would be best to send me as far away as possible.'^[26] The realities of peripatetic life—of interwoven cultures, of feeling out of place, and of homesickness—so affected the schoolboy Edward that themes of dissonance feature in the work and worldview of the academic Said.^[26] At school's end, he had become Edward W. Said—a polyglot intellectual (fluent in English, French, and Arabic) who had earned a Bachelor of Arts (1957) degree at Princeton University, and Master of Arts (1960) and Doctor of Philosophy (1964) degrees in English Literature from Harvard University.^[29][30]

Career

In 1963, Said joined Columbia University, as a member of the English and Comparative Literature faculties, where he taught and worked until 2003. In 1974, he was Visiting Professor of Comparative Literature at Harvard; during the 1975–76 period, he was a Fellow of the Center for Advanced Study in Behavioral Science, at Stanford University. In 1977, he became the Parr Professor of English and Comparative Literature at Columbia University, and subsequently was the Old Dominion Foundation Professor in the Humanities; and in 1979 was Visiting Professor of Humanities at Johns Hopkins University.^[31]

Said also worked as a visiting professor at Yale University, and lectured at other universities.^[32] Said lectured at more than 200 universities in North America, Europe, and the Middle East.^[33] In 1992, Said was promoted to 'Professor', the highest-rank academic job at Columbia University.^[34] Editorially, Prof. Edward Said served as president of the Modern Language Association; as editor of the Arab Studies Quarterly in the American Academy of Arts and Sciences; was on the executive board of International PEN; and was a member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters, the Royal Society of Literature, the Council of Foreign Relations^[31] the American Philosophical Society.^[35] In 1993, Said presented the BBC's annual Reith Lectures, a six-lecture series titled Representation of the Intellectual, wherein he examined the role of the public intellectual in contemporary society, which the BBC published in 2011.^[36]

Literary production

Said's first published book, Joseph Conrad and the Fiction of Autobiography (1966), was an expansion of the doctoral dissertation he presented to earn the PhD degree. Moreover, in Edward Saïd: Criticism and Society (2010), Abdirahman Hussein said that Conrad's novella Heart of Darkness (1899) was 'foundational to Said's entire career and project'.^[37][38] Afterwards, Said redacted ideas gleaned from the works of the 17th-century philosopher Giambattista Vico, and other intellectuals, in the book Beginnings: Intention and Method (1974), about the theoretical bases of literary criticism.^[39] Said's later works include The World, the Text, and the Critic (1983), Nationalism, Colonialism, and Literature: Yeats and Decolonization (1988), Culture and Imperialism (1993), Representations of the Intellectual: The 1993 Reith Lectures (1994), Humanism and Democratic Criticism (2004), and On Late Style (2006).

Orientalism

Said became an established cultural critic with the book Orientalism (1978) a critique (description and analyses) of Orientalism as the source of the false cultural representations with which the Western world perceives the Middle East—the narratives of how The West sees The East. The thesis of Orientalism proposes the existence of a 'subtle and persistent Eurocentric prejudice against Arabo–Islamic peoples and their culture', which originates from Western culture's long tradition of false, romanticized images of Asia, in general, and the Middle East, in particular. That such cultural representations have served, and continue to serve, as implicit justifications for the colonial and imperial ambitions of the European powers and of the U.S. Likewise, Said denounced the political and the cultural malpractices of the régimes of the ruling Arab élites who have internalized the false and romanticized representations of Arabic culture that were created by Anglo–American Orientalists.^[40]

So far as the United States seems to be concerned, it is only a slight overstatement to say that Moslems and Arabs are essentially seen as either oil suppliers or potential terrorists. Very little of the detail, the human density, the passion of Arab–Moslem life has entered the awareness of even those people whose profession it is to report the Arab world. What we have, instead, is a series of crude, essentialized caricatures of the Islamic world, presented in such a way as to make that world vulnerable to military aggression.

Orientalism proposed that much Western study of Islamic civilization was political intellectualism, meant for the self-affirmation of European identity, rather than objective academic study; thus, the academic field of Oriental studies functioned as a practical method of cultural discrimination and imperialist domination—that is to say, the Western Orientalist knows more about the Orient than do the Orientals.^[40][42]

That the cultural representations of the Eastern world that Orientalism purveys are intellectually suspect, and cannot be accepted as faithful, true, and accurate representations of the peoples and things of the Orient; that the history of European colonial rule and political domination of Asian civilizations, distorts the writing of even the most knowledgeable, well-meaning, and culturally sympathetic Orientalist.

I doubt if it is controversial, for example, to say that an Englishman in India, or Egypt, in the later nineteenth century, took an interest in those countries, which was never far from their status, in his mind, as British colonies. To say this may seem quite different from saying that all academic knowledge about India and Egypt is somehow tinged and impressed with, violated by, the gross political fact—and yet that is what I am saying in this study of Orientalism.

That since Antiquity, Western Art has misrepresented the Orient with stereotypes; in the tragedy The Persians (472 BCE), by Aeschylus, the Greek protagonist falls, because he misperceived the true nature of The Orient.^[44] That the European political domination of Asia has biased even the most outwardly objective Western texts about The Orient, to a degree unrecognized by the Western scholars who appropriated for themselves the production of cultural knowledge—the academic work of studying, exploring, and interpreting the languages, histories, and peoples of Asia; therefore, Orientalist scholarship implies that the colonial subaltern (the colonised people) were incapable of thinking, acting, or speaking for themselves, thus are incapable of writing their own national histories. In such imperial circumstances, the Orientalist scholars of the West wrote the history of the Orient—and so constructed the modern, cultural identities of Asia—from the perspective that the West is the cultural standard to emulate, the norm from which the 'exotic and inscrutable' Orientals deviate.^[45]

The thesis of Orientalism concluded that the West's knowledge of the Orient depicts the cultures of the Eastern world as an irrational, weak, and feminized non–European Other, which is the opposite of the West's representations of Western cultures as a rational, strong, and masculine polity. That such an artificial binary-relation originates from the European psychological need to create a 'difference' of inequality, between the West and the East, which inequality originates from the immutable cultural essences innate to the peoples of the Oriental world.^[46]

Criticism of Orientalism

Orientalism provoked much professional and personal criticism for Said among academics.^[47] Traditional Orientalists, such as Albert Hourani, Robert Graham Irwin, Nikki Keddie, Bernard Lewis, and Kanan Makiya, suffered negative consequences, because Orientalism affected public perception of their intellectual integrity and the quality of their Orientalist scholarship.^[48][49][51] The historian Keddie said that Said's critical work about the field of Orientalism had caused, in their academic disciplines:

Some unfortunate consequences ... I think that there has been a tendency in the Middle East [studies] field to adopt the word Orientalism as a generalized swear-word, essentially referring to people who take the 'wrong' position on the Arab–Israeli dispute, or to people who are judged 'too conservative.' It has nothing to do with whether they are good or not good in their disciplines. So, Orientalism, for many people, is a word that substitutes for thought, and enables people to dismiss certain scholars and their works. I think that is too bad. It may not have been what Edward Saïd meant, at all, but the term has become a kind of slogan.

In Orientalism, Said described Bernard Lewis, the Anglo–American Orientalist, as 'a perfect exemplification [of an] Establishment Orientalist [whose work] purports to be objective, liberal scholarship, but is, in reality, very close to being propaganda against his subject material.'^[53]

Lewis responded with a harsh critique of Orientalism accusing Said of politicizing the scientific study of the Middle East (and Arabic studies in particular); neglecting to critique the scholarly findings of the Orientalists; and giving 'free rein' to his biases.^[54]

Said retorted that in The Muslim Discovery of Europe (1982), Lewis responded to his thesis with the claim that the Western quest for knowledge about other societies was unique in its display of disinterested curiosity, which Muslims did not reciprocate towards Europe. Lewis was saying that 'knowledge about Europe [was] the only acceptable criterion for true knowledge.' The appearance of academic impartiality was part of Lewis's role as an academic authority for zealous 'anti–Islamic, anti–Arab, Zionist, and Cold War crusades.'^[55][56] Moreover, in the Afterword to the 1995 edition of the book, Said replied to Lewis's criticisms of the first edition of Orientalism (1978).^[56][57]

Influence of Orientalism

In the academy, Orientalism became a foundational text of the field of Post-colonial studies, for what the British intellectual Terry Eagleton said is the book's 'central truth ... that demeaning images of the East, and imperialist incursions into its terrain, have historically gone hand in hand.'^[58]

Said's friends and foes acknowledged the transformative influence of Orientalism upon scholarship in the humanities; critics said that the thesis is an intellectually limiting influence upon scholars, whilst supporters said that the thesis is intellectually liberating.^[59][60] The fields of post-colonial and cultural studies attempt to explain the 'post-colonial world, its peoples, and their discontents',^[3][61] for which the techniques of investigation and efficacy in Orientalism, proved especially applicable in Middle Eastern studies.^[9]

As such, the investigation and analysis Said applied in Orientalism proved especially practical in literary criticism and cultural studies,^[9] such as the post-colonial histories of India by Gyan Prakash,^[62]Nicholas Dirks^[63] and Ronald Inden,^[64] modern Cambodia by Simon Springer,^[65] and the literary theories of Homi K. Bhabha,^[66]Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak^[67] and Hamid Dabashi (Iran: A People Interrupted, 2007).

Edward Said States Pdf Online

In Eastern Europe, Milica Bakić–Hayden developed the concept of Nesting Orientalisms (1992), derived from the ideas of the historian Larry Wolff (Inventing Eastern Europe: The Map of Civilization on the Mind of the Enlightenment, 1994) and Said's ideas in Orientalism (1978).^[68] The Bulgarian historian Maria Todorova (Imagining the Balkans, 1997) presented the ethnologic concept of Nesting Balkanisms (Ethnologia Balkanica, 1997), which is derived from Milica Bakić–Hayden's concept of Nesting Orientalisms.^[69]

In The Impact of 'Biblical Orientalism' in Late Nineteenth- and Early Twentieth-Century Palestine (2014), the historian Lorenzo Kamel, presented the concept of 'Biblical Orientalism' with an historical analysis of the simplifications of the complex, local Palestinian reality, which occurred from the 1830s until the early 20th century.^[70] Kamel said that the selective usage and simplification of religion, in approaching the place known as 'The Holy Land', created a view that, as a place, the Holy Land has no human history other than as the place where Bible stories occurred, rather than as Palestine, a country inhabited by many peoples.

The post-colonial discourse presented in Orientalism, also influenced post-colonial theology and post-colonial biblical criticism, by which method the analytical reader approaches a scripture from the perspective of a colonial reader. See: The Bible and Zionism: Invented Traditions, Archaeology and Post-colonialism in Palestine–Israel (2007).^[71] Another book in this area is Postcolonial Theory (1998), by Leela Gandhi, explains Post-colonialism to how it can be applied to the wider philosophical and intellectual context of history.^[72]

Politics

In 1967, consequent to the Six-Day War (5–10 June 1967) the academic Edward Said became a public intellectual when he acted politically to counter the stereotyped misrepresentations (factual, historical, cultural) with which the U.S. news media explained the Arab–Israeli wars; reportage divorced from the historical realities of the Middle East, in general, and Palestine and Israel, in particular. To address, explain, and correct such Orientalism, Said published 'The Arab Portrayed' (1968), a descriptive essay about images of 'the Arab' that are meant to evade specific discussion of the historical and cultural realities of the peoples (Jews, Christians, Muslims) who are the Middle East, featured in journalism (print, photograph, television) and some types of scholarship (specialist journals).^[73]

In the essay 'Zionism from the Standpoint of its Victims' (1979), Said argued in favour of the political legitimacy and philosophic authenticity of the Zionist claims and right to a Jewish homeland; and for the inherent right of national self-determination of the Palestinian people.^[74] Said's books about Israel and Palestine include The Question of Palestine (1979), The Politics of Dispossession (1994), and The End of the Peace Process (2000).

Palestinian National Council

From 1977 until 1991, Said was an independent member of the Palestinian National Council (PNC).^[75] In 1988, he was a proponent of the two-state solution to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict (1948), and voted for the establishment of the State of Palestine at a meeting of the PNC in Algiers. In 1993, Said quit his membership to the Palestinian National Council, to protest the internal politics that led to the signing of the Oslo Accords (Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government Arrangements, 1993), which he thought had unacceptable terms, and because the terms had been rejected by the Madrid Conference of 1991.

Said disliked the Oslo Accords for not producing an independent State of Palestine, and because they were politically inferior to a plan that Yasir Arafat had rejected—a plan Said had presented to Arafat on behalf of the U.S. government in the late 1970s.^[76] Especially troublesome to Said was his belief that Yasir Arafat had betrayed the right of return of the Palestinian refugees to their houses and properties in the Green Line territories of pre-1967 Israel, and that Arafat ignored the growing political threat of the Israeli settlements in the occupied territories that had been established since the conquest of Palestine in 1967.

In 1995, in response to Said's political criticisms, the Palestinian Authority (PA) banned the sale of Said's books; however, the PA lifted the book-ban when Said publicly praised Yasir Arafat for rejecting Prime Minister Ehud Barak's offers at the Middle East Peace Summit at Camp David (2000) in the U.S.^[77][78]

In the mid-1990s, Said wrote the Foreword to the history book Jewish History, Jewish Religion: The Weight of Three Thousand Years (1994), by Israel Shahak, about Jewish fundamentalism, which presents the cultural proposition that Israel's mistreatment of the Palestinians is rooted in a Judaic requirement (of permission) for Jews to commit crimes, including murder, against Gentiles (non-Jews). In his Foreword, Said said that Jewish History, Jewish Religion is 'nothing less than a concise history of classic and modern Judaism, insofar as these are relevant to the understanding of modern Israel'; and praised the historian Shahak for describing contemporary Israel as a nation subsumed in a 'Judeo–Nazi' cultural ambiance that allowed the dehumanization of the Palestinian Other:^[79]

In all my works, I remained fundamentally critical of a gloating and uncritical nationalism. . . . My view of Palestine . . . remains the same today: I expressed all sorts of reservations about the insouciant nativism, and militant militarism of the nationalist consensus; I suggested, instead, a critical look at the Arab environment, Palestinian history, and the Israeli realities, with the explicit conclusion that only a negotiated settlement, between the two communities of suffering, Arab and Jewish, would provide respite from the unending war.

In 1998, Said made In Search of Palestine (1998), a BBC documentary film about Palestine past and present. In the company of his son, Wadie, Said revisited the places of his boyhood, and confronted injustices meted out to ordinary Palestinians in the contemporary West Bank. Despite the social and cultural prestige usual to BBC cinema products in the U.S., the documentary was never broadcast by any American television company.^[81][82] In 1999, the American monthly Commentary cited ledgers kept at the Land Registry Office in Jerusalem during the Mandatory period as background for his boyhood recollections.^[83]

In Palestine

On 3 July 2000, whilst touring the Middle East with his son, Wadie, Edward Said was photographed throwing a stone across the Blue Line Lebanese–Israel border, which image elicited much political criticism about his action demonstrating an inherent, personal sympathy with terrorism; and, in Commentary magazine, the journalist Edward Alexander labelled Said as 'The Professor of Terror', for aggression against Israel.^[84] Said explained the stone-throwing as a two-fold action, personal and political; a man-to-man contest-of-skill, between a father and his son, and an Arab Man's gesture of joy at the end of the Israeli occupation of southern Lebanon (1985–2000): 'It was a pebble; there was nobody there. The guardhouse was at least half a mile away.'^[85]

Despite having denied that he aimed the stone at an Israeli guardhouse, the Beirut newspaper As-Safir (The Ambassador) reported that a Lebanese local resident reported that Prof. Said was at less than ten metres (ca. 30 ft.) distance from the Israeli Defense Force (IDF) soldiers manning the two-storey guardhouse, when Said aimed and threw the stone over the border fence; the stone's projectile path was thwarted when it struck the barbed wire atop the border fence.^[86] Nonetheless, in the U.S., despite a political fracas by right-wing students at Columbia University and the Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith International (Sons of the Covenant), the university provost published a five-page letter defending Prof. Said's action as an academic's freedom of expression: 'To my knowledge, the stone was directed at no-one; no law was broken; no indictment was made; no criminal or civil action has been taken against Professor Saïd.'^[87]

Nevertheless, Said endured political repercussions, such as the cancellation of an invitation to give a lecture to the Freud Society, in Austria, in February 2001.^[88] The President of the Freud Society justified withdrawing the invitation by explaining to Said that 'the political situation in the Middle East, and its consequences' had rendered an accusation of anti-Semitism a very serious matter, and that any such accusation 'has become more dangerous' in the politics of Austria; thus, the Freud Society cancelled their invitation to Said in order to 'avoid an internal clash' of opinions, about him, that might ideologically divide the Freud Society.^[85] In Culture and Resistance: Conversations with Edward Saïd (2003), Said likened his political situation to the situation that Noam Chomsky has perdured as a public intellectual:

'It's very similar to his. He's a well-known, great linguist. He's been celebrated and honored for that, but he's also vilified as an anti–Semite and as a Hitler worshiper. ... For anyone to deny the horrendous experience of anti–Semitism and the Holocaust is unacceptable. We don't want anybody's history of suffering to go unrecorded and unacknowledged. On the other hand, there's a great difference, between acknowledging Jewish oppression and using that as a cover for the oppression of another people.'^[89]

Criticism of U.S. foreign policy

In the revised edition of Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the Rest of the World (1997), Said criticized the Orientalist bias of the Western news media's reportage about the Middle East and Islam, especially the tendency to editorialize 'speculations about the latest conspiracy to blow up buildings, sabotage commercial airliners, and poison water supplies.'^[90] He criticized the American military involvement in the Kosovo War (1998–99) as an imperial action; and described the Iraq Liberation Act (1998), promulgated during the Clinton Administration, as the political license that predisposed the U.S. to invade Iraq in 2003, which was authorised with the Iraq Resolution (2 October 2002); and the continual support of Israel by successive U.S. presidential governments, as actions meant to perpetuate regional political instability in the Middle East.^[14]

In the event, despite being sick with leukemia, as a public intellectual, Said continued criticising the U.S. Invasion of Iraq in mid-2003;^[91] and, in the Egyptian Al-Ahram Weekly newspaper, in the article 'Resources of Hope' (2 April 2003), Said said that the U.S. war against Iraq was a politically ill-conceived military enterprise:

My strong opinion, though I don't have any proof, in the classical sense of the word, is that they want to change the entire Middle East, and the Arab world, perhaps terminate some countries, destroy the so-called terrorist groups they dislike, and install régimes friendly to the United States. I think this is a dream that has very little basis in reality. The knowledge they have of the Middle East, to judge from the people who advise them, is, to say the least, out of date and widely speculative. . . .

I don't think the planning for the post–Saddam, post-war period in Iraq is very sophisticated, and there's very little of it. U.S. Undersecretary of State Marc Grossman and U.S. Undersecretary of Defense Douglas Feith testified in Congress, about a month ago, and seemed to have no figures, and no ideas [about] what structures they were going to deploy; they had no idea about the use of [the Iraqi] institutions that exist, although they want to de–Ba'thise the higher echelons, and keep the rest.

The same is true about their views of the [Iraqi] army. They certainly have no use for the Iraqi opposition that they've been spending many millions of dollars on; and, to the best of my ability to judge, they are going to improvise; of course, the model is Afghanistan. I think they hope that the U.N. will come in and do something, but, given the recent French and Russian positions, I doubt that that will happen with such simplicity.^[92]

Under surveillance

In 2003, Haidar Abdel-Shafi, Ibrahim Dakak, Mustafa Barghouti, and Said established Al-Mubadara (The Palestinian National Initiative), headed by Dr. Mustafa Barghouti, a third-party reformist, democratic party meant to be an alternative to the usual two-party politics of Palestine. As a political party, the ideology of Al-Mubadara is specifically an alternative to the extremist politics of the social-democratic Fatah and the IslamistHamas (Islamic Resistance Movement). Said's founding of the group, as well as his other international political activities concerning Palestine, were noticed by the U.S. government; in 2006, the anthropologist David Price obtained 147 pages of the 283-page political dossier that the FBI had compiled on Said, begun in 1971, four years into his career as a public intellectual active in U.S. politics.^[93]

Music

Besides having been a public intellectual, Edward Said was an accomplished pianist, worked as the music critic for The Nation magazine, and wrote four books about music: Musical Elaborations (1991); Parallels and Paradoxes: Explorations in Music and Society (2002), with Daniel Barenboim as co-author; On Late Style: Music and Literature Against the Grain (2006); and Music at the Limits (2007) in which final book he spoke of finding musical reflections of his literary and historical ideas in bold compositions and strong performances.^[94][95]

Elsewhere in the musical world, the composer Mohammed Fairouz acknowledged the deep influence of Edward Said upon his works; compositionally, Fairouz's First Symphony thematically alludes to the essay 'Homage to a Belly-Dancer' (1990), about Tahia Carioca, the Egyptian terpsichorean, actress, and political militant; and a piano sonata titled Reflections on Exile (1984), which thematically refers to the emotions inherent to being an exile.^[96][97][98]

In 1999, Edward W. Said and Daniel Barenboim co-founded the West-Eastern Divan Orchestra, which is composed of young Israeli, Palestinian, and Arab musicians. They also established The Barenboim–Said Foundation in Seville, to develop education-through-music projects. Besides managing the West–Eastern Divan Orchestra, the Barenboim–Said Foundation assists with the administration of the Academy of Orchestral Studies, the Musical Education in Palestine Project, and the Early Childhood Musical Education Project, in Seville.^[99]

Honors and awards

Besides honors, memberships, and postings to prestigious organizations worldwide, Edward Said was awarded some twenty honorary university degrees in the course of his professional life as an academic, critic, and Man of Letters.^[100] Among the honors bestowed to him was the Bowdoin Prize by Harvard University. He twice received the Lionel Trilling Book Award; the first occasion was the inaugural bestowing of said literary award in 1976, for Beginnings: Intention and Method (1974). He also received the Wellek Prize of the American Comparative Literature Association, and was awarded the inaugural Spinoza Lens Prize.^[101] In 2001, Said was awarded the Lannan Literary Award for Lifetime Achievement, and in 2002, he received the Prince of Asturias Award for Concord. He was the first U.S. citizen to receive the Sultan Owais Prize (for Cultural & Scientific Achievements, 1996–1997).^[102] The autobiography Out of Place (1999) was bestowed three awards, the 1999 New Yorker Book Award for Non-Fiction; the 2000 Anisfield-Wolf Book Award for Non-Fiction; and the Morton Dauwen Zabel Award in Literature.^[103]

Death and legacy

On 24 September 2003, after enduring a twelve-year sickness with chronic lymphocytic leukemia, Edward W. Said died, at 67 years of age, in New York City.^[12] He was survived by his wife, Mariam C. Said, his son, Wadie Said, and his daughter, Najla Said.^{[104][105][106]} The eulogists included Alexander Cockburn ('A Mighty and Passionate Heart');^[107]Seamus Deane ('A Late Style of Humanism');^[108]Christopher Hitchens ('A Valediction for Edward Said');^[109]Tony Judt ('The Rootless Cosmopolitan');^[110]Michael Wood ('On Edward Said');^[111] and Tariq Ali ('Remembering Edward Said, 1935–2003').^[112] In November 2004, in Palestine, Birzeit University renamed their music school the Edward Said National Conservatory of Music.^[113]

Edward Said States Pdf Book

The tributes to Edward Said include books and schools; such as Waiting for the Barbarians: A Tribute to Edward W. Said (2008) features essays by Akeel Bilgrami, Rashid Khalidi, and Elias Khoury;^[114][115]Edward Said: The Charisma of Criticism (2010), by Harold Aram Veeser, a critical biography; and Edward Said: A Legacy of Emancipation and Representations (2010), essays by Joseph Massad, Ilan Pappé, Ella Shohat, Ghada Karmi, Noam Chomsky, Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, and Daniel Barenboim; and the Barenboim–Said Academy (Berlin) was established in 2012.

See also

References

Citations

1. ^William D. Hart (2000). 'Preliminary remarks'. Edward Said and the Religious Effects of Culture. Cambridge University Press. p. 15. ISBN9780521778107.
2. ^Ned Curthoys, Debjani Ganguly, ed. (2007). Edward Said: The Legacy of a Public Intellectual. Academic Monographs. p. 27. ISBN9780522853575.
3. ^ ^abRobert Young, White Mythologies: Writing History and the West, New York & London: Routledge, 1990.
4. ^ ^abIan Buchanan, ed. (2010). 'Said, Edward'. A Dictionary of Critical Theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
5. ^Ferial Jabouri Ghazoul, ed. (2007). Edward Saïd and Critical Decolonization. American University in Cairo Press. pp. 290–. ISBN978-977-416-087-5. Retrieved 19 November 2011. Edward W. Saïd (1935–2003) was one of the most influential intellectuals in the twentieth century.
6. ^Zamir, Shamoon (2005), 'Saïd, Edward W.', in Jones, Lindsay (ed.), Encyclopedia of Religion, Second Edition, 12, Macmillan Reference USA, Thomas Gale, pp. 8031–32, Edward W. Saïd (1935–2003) is best known as the author of the influential and widely-read Orientalism (1978) ... His forceful defense of secular humanism and of the public role of the intellectual, as much as his trenchant critiques of Orientalism, and his unwavering advocacy of the Palestinian cause, made Saïd one of the most internationally influential cultural commentators writing out of the United States in the last quarter of the twentieth century.
7. ^Joachim Gentz (2009). 'Orientalism/Occidentalism'. Keywords re-oriented. interKULTUR, European-Chinese intercultural studies, Volume IV. Universitätsverlag Göttingen. pp. 41–. ISBN978-3-940344-86-1. Retrieved 18 November 2011. Edward Saïd's influential Orientalism (1979) effectively created a discursive field in cultural studies, stimulating fresh critical analysis of Western academic work on 'The Orient'. Although the book, itself, has been criticized from many angles, it is still considered to be the seminal work to the field.
8. ^Richard T. Gray; Ruth V. Gross; Rolf J. Goebel; Clayton Koelb, eds. (2005). A Franz Kafka encyclopedia. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 212–. ISBN978-0-313-30375-3. Retrieved 18 November 2011. In its current usage, Orient is a key term of cultural critique that derives from Edward W. Saïd's influential book Orientalism.
9. ^ ^abcStephen Howe, 'Dangerous mind?', New Humanist, Vol. 123, November/December 2008.
10. ^'Between Worlds', Reflections on Exile, and Other Essays (2002) pp. 561, 565.
11. ^Sherry, Mark (2010). 'Said, Edward Wadie (1935–2003)'. In John R. Shook (ed.). The Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers. Oxford: Continuum.
12. ^ ^abcBernstein, Richard (26 September 2003). 'Edward W. Said, Literary Critic and Advocate for Palestinian Independence, Dies at 67'. The New York Times. p. 23. Retrieved 6 June 2013.
13. ^Andrew N. Rubin, 'Edward W. Said', Arab Studies Quarterly, Fall 2004: p. 1. Accessed 5 January 2010.
14. ^ ^abDemocracy Now!, 'Edward Saïd Archive'Archived 8 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine, DemocracyNow.org, 2003. Accessed 4 January 2010.
15. ^Barsamian, David (16 November 2001). 'Interview with Edward W. Said'. Progressive.org.
16. ^Sherry, Mark (2005). Shook, John R. (ed.). Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers. Bristol: Thoemmes Continuum. p. 2106. ISBN9781843710370.
17. ^Hughes, Robert (21 June 1993). 'Envoy to Two Cultures'. Time. Retrieved 21 October 2008.
18. ^Ihab Shalback, 'Edward Said and the Palestinian Experience,' in Joseph Pugliese (ed.) Transmediterranean: Diasporas, Histories, Geopolitical Spaces, Peter Lang, 2010, pp. 71–83
19. ^Edward Said: 'Out of Place' 14 November 2018, Aljazeera.com. Accessed 7 February 2019
20. ^Edward Wadie Said a political activist literary critic 27 September 2003, The Independent. Accessed 7 February 2019
21. ^Adel Iskander, Hakem Rustom (2010). Edward Saïd: A Legacy of Emancipation and Representation. University of California Press. ISBN978-0-520-24546-4. [Edward Wadie] Saïd was of Christian background, a confirmed agnostic, perhaps even an atheist, yet he had a rage for justice and a moral sensibility lacking in most [religious] believers. Saïd retained his own ethical compass without God, and persevered in an exile, once forced, from Cairo, and now chosen, affected by neither malice nor fear.
22. ^John Cornwell (2010). Newman's Unquiet Grave: The Reluctant Saint. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 128. ISBN9781441150844. A hundred and fifty years on, Edward Saïd, an agnostic of Palestinian origins, who strove to correct false Western impressions of 'Orientalism', would declare Newman's university discourses both true and 'incomparably eloquent'. . . .
23. ^Joe Sacco (2001). Palestine. Fantagraphics.
24. ^Amritjit Singh, Interviews With Edward W. Saïd (Oxford: UP of Mississippi, 2004) pp. 19, 219.
25. ^Edward Saïd, Defamation, Revisionist StyleArchived 10 December 2002 at the Wayback Machine, CounterPunch, 1999. Accessed 7 February 2010.
26. ^ ^abcdEdward Said, Between Worlds, London Review of Books, 7 May 1998.
27. ^Said, Edward W. (1999). Out of Place. Vintage Books, NY. p. 201.
28. ^'Between Worlds', Reflections on Exile, and Other Essays (2002) pp. 556–57.
29. ^Saïd, Edward. Out of Place, Vintage Books, 1999: pp. 82–83.
30. ^Encyclopædia Britannica Online, Edward Saïd, accessed 3 January 2010.
31. ^ ^abLA Jews For Peace, The Question of Palestine by Edward Saïd. (1997)Books on the Israel–Palestinian Conflict – Annotated Bibliography, accessed 3 January 2010.
32. ^Dr. Farooq, Study Resource PageArchived 9 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine, Global Web Post, accessed on 3 January 2010.
33. ^Omri, Mohamed-Salah, 'The Portrait of the Intellectual as a Porter'
34. ^Columbia University Press, About the Author: Humanism and Democratic Criticism, 2004.
35. ^Moustafa Bayoumi and Andrew Rubin, Eds., The Edward Saïd Reader, Vintage, 2000, p. xv.
36. ^'The Reith Lectures: Edward Saïd: Representation of the Intellectual: 1993'. BBC. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
37. ^Joseph Conrad and the Fiction of Autobiography (1966).
38. ^McCarthy, Conor (2010). The Cambridge Introduction to Edward Said. Cambridge UP. pp. 16–. ISBN9781139491402. Retrieved 27 February 2013.
39. ^Edward Saïd, Power, Politics and Culture, Bloomsbury Publishing, 2001: pp. 77–79.
40. ^ ^abWindschuttle, Keith. 'Edward Saïd's 'Orientalism revisited', The New Criterion 17 January 1999. Archived 1 May 2008, at the Internet Archive, accessed 23 November 2011.
41. ^Said, Edward (26 April 1980). 'Islam Through Western Eyes'. The Nation. Retrieved 6 June 2013.
42. ^Saïd, Edward. Orientalism, Vintage Books: New York: 1979 p. 12.
43. ^Said, Edward. Orientalism: p. 11.
44. ^Said, Edward. Orientalism, pp. 56–57.
45. ^Said, Edward. Orientalism, pp. 38–41.
46. ^Said, Edward. Orientalism, pp. 65–67.
47. ^Kramer, Martin. 'Enough Said (Book review: Dangerous Knowledge, by Robert Irwin)', March 2007. Retrieved 5 January 2010.
48. ^Lewis, Bernard. 'The Question of Orientalism', Islam and the West, London: 1993. pp. 99, 118.
49. ^Irwin, Robert. For Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and Their Enemies London:Allen Lane: 2006.
50. ^'Said's Splash'Ivory Towers on Sand: The Failure of Middle Eastern Studies in America, Policy Papers 58 (Washington, D.C.: Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 2001).
51. ^Martin Kramer said that 'Fifteen years after [the] publication of Orientalism, the UCLA historian Nikki Keddie (whose work Saïd praised in Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the Rest of the World) allowed that Orientalism was 'important, and, in many ways, positive' '.^[50]
52. ^Approaches to the History of the Middle East, Nancy Elizabeth Gallagher, Ed., London:Ithaca Press, 1994: pp. 144–45.
53. ^Said, Edward Orientalism, p. 315.
54. ^Lewis, Bernard (24 June 1982). 'The Question of Orientalism'(PDF). New York Review of Books. Retrieved 17 December 2017.
55. ^Saïd, Edward Orientalism (1978), p. 315; 'Orientalism Reconsidered' (1985), p. 96.
56. ^ ^abEdward Saïd, 'Orientalism Reconsidered', Cultural Critique magazine, No. 1, Autumn 1985, p. 96.
57. ^Said, Edward Orientalism: pp. 329–54
58. ^Eagleton, Terry. Eastern Block (book review of For Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and Their Enemies, 2006, by Robert Irwin)Archived 18 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine, New Statesman, 13 February 2006.
59. ^Martin Kramer. Ivory Towers on Sand: The Failure of Middle Eastern Studies in America (2001)
60. ^Andrew N. Rubin, 'Techniques of Trouble: Edward Saïd and the Dialectics of Cultural Philology', The South Atlantic Quarterly, 102.4 (2003). pp. 862–76.
61. ^Emory University, Department of English, Introduction to Postcolonial Studies
62. ^Prakash, Gyan (April 1990). 'Writing Post-Orientalist Histories of the Third World: Perspectives from Indian Historiography'. Comparative Studies in Society and History. 32 (2): 383–408. doi:10.1017/s0010417500016534. JSTOR178920.
63. ^Nicholas Dirks, Castes of Mind, Princeton: Princeton UP, 2001.
64. ^Ronald Inden, Imagining India, New York: Oxford UP, 1990.
65. ^Simon Springer, 'Culture of Violence or Violent Orientalism? Neoliberalisation and Imagining the 'Savage Other' in Post-transitional Cambodia', Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 34.3 (2009): 305–19.
66. ^Homi K. Bhaba, Nation and Narration, New York & London: Routledge, Chapman & Hall, 1990.
67. ^Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, In Other Worlds: Essays in Cultural Politics, London: Methuen, 1987.
68. ^John E Ashbrook (2008). Buying and Selling the Istrian Goat: Istrian Regionalism, Croatian Nationalism, and EU Enlargement. New York: Peter Lang. p. 22. ISBN978-90-5201-391-6. OCLC213599021. Milica Baki–Hayden built on Wolff's work, incorporating the ideas of Edward Saïd's 'Orientalism'
69. ^Ethnologia Balkanica. Sofia: Prof. M. Drinov Academic Pub. House. 1995. p. 37. OCLC41714232. The idea of 'nesting orientalisms', in Baki–Hayden 1995, and the related concept of 'nesting balkanisms', in Todorova 1997. ...
70. ^Kamel, Lorenzo (2014). 'The Impact of 'Biblical Orientalism' in Late Nineteenth- and Early Twentieth-Century Palestine'. New Middle Eastern Studies (4).
71. ^Masalha, Nur (2007). The Bible and Zionism: Invented Traditions, Archaeology and Post-Colonialism in Palestine–Israel. New York: Zed Books.
72. ^Gandhi, Leela (1998). Postcolonial Theory. New York: Columbia University Press.
73. ^'Between Worlds', Reflections on Exile, and Other Essays (2002) pp. 563.
74. ^Edward Saïd, 'Zionism from the Standpoint of its Victims' (1979), in The Edward Saïd Reader, Vintage Books, 2000, pp. 114–68.
75. ^Malise Ruthven, 'Edward Said: Controversial Literary Critic and Bold Advocate of the Palestinian Cause in America,'The Guardian 26 September 2003; accessed 1 March 2006.
76. ^Edward Saïd, 'The Morning After'. London Review of Books Vol. 15 No. 20. 21 October 1993.
77. ^Michael Wood, 'On Edward Said', London Review of Books, 23 October 2003, accessed 5 January 2010.
78. ^Edward Said, 'The price of Camp David', Al Ahram Weekly, 23 July 2001. Accessed 5 January 2010.
79. ^Werner Cohn: What Edward Said knows Page accessed 2012-06-15.
80. ^Edward Saïd, 'Orientalism, an Afterward' Raritan 14:3 (Winter 1995).
81. ^'In Search of Palestine (1998)'. BFI.
82. ^Culture and resistance: conversations with Edward W. Said By Edward W. Said, David Barsamian, p. 57
83. ^WEINER, JUSTUS REID (1 September 1999). ''My Beautiful Old House' and other Fabrications by Edward Said'. Commentary. 108 (2): 32. ISSN0010-2601. Retrieved 31 January 2017.
84. ^ ^abJulian Vigo, 'Edward Saïd and the Politics of Peace: From Orientalisms to Terrorology', A Journal of Contemporary Thought (2004): pp. 43–65.
85. ^ ^abDinitia Smith, 'A Stone's Throw is a Freudian Slip', The New York Times, 10 March 2001.
86. ^Sunnie Kim, Edward Said Accused of Stoning in South Lebanon, Columbia Spectator, 19 July 2000.
87. ^Karen W. Arenson (19 October 2000). 'Columbia Debates a Professor's 'Gesture''. The New York Times.
88. ^Edward Saïd and David Barsamian, Culture and Resistance – Conversations with Edward Said, South End Press, 2003: pp. 85–86
89. ^Edward Saïd and David Barsamian, Culture and Resistance: Conversations with Edward Saïd, South End Press, 2003: pp. 85, 178
90. ^Martin Kramer, Enough Said review of Dangerous Knowledge, by Robert Irwin, March 2007.
91. ^Democracy Now!, 'Syrian Expert Patrick Seale and Columbia University Professor Edward Said Discuss the State of the Middle East After the Invasion of Iraq', DemocracyNow.org, 15 April 2003. Accessed 4 January 2010.
92. ^Said, Edward.'Resources of Hope'Archived 21 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Al-Ahram Weekly, 2 April 2003, accessed April 26, 2007.
93. ^David Price, 'How the FBI Spied on Edward Said,'Archived 16 January 2006 at the Wayback MachineCounterPunch 13 January 2006, accessed 15 January 2006.
94. ^Ranjan Ghosh, Edward Said and the Literary, Social, and Political WorldArchived 10 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine, New York: Routledge, 2009: p. 22.
95. ^Columbia University Press, Music at the Limits by Edward W. Saïd, accessed 5 January 2010.
96. ^Rase, Sherri (8 April 2011), Conversations—with Mohammed FairouzArchived 22 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine, [Q]onStage, retrieved 2011-04-19
97. ^'Homage to a Belly-dancer', Granta, 13 (Winter 1984).
98. ^'Reflections on Exile', London Review of Books, 13 September 1990.
99. ^Barenboim–Saïd Foundation, official websiteArchived 27 October 2009 at the Wayback Machine, Barenboim-Said.org. Accessed 4 January 2010.
100. ^The English Pen World Atlas, 'Edward Said'Archived 27 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine, accessed on 3 January 2010.
101. ^Spinozalens, Internationale Spinozaprijs LaureatesArchived 5 August 2008 at the Wayback Machine, accessed on 3 January 2010.
102. ^Columbia University Press, 'About the Author', Humanism and Democratic Criticism, 2004.
103. ^The English Pen World Atlas, Edward SaidArchived 27 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine, accessed on 3 January 2010.
104. ^Ruthven, Malise (26 September 2003). 'Obituary: Edward Said'. The Guardian. Retrieved 6 June 2013.
105. ^'Columbia Community Mourns Passing of Edward Said, Beloved and Esteemed University Professor'. Columbia News. 26 September 2003. Retrieved 6 June 2013.
106. ^Feeney, Mark (26 September 2003). 'Edward Said, critic, scholar, Palestinian advocate; at 67'. The Boston Globe. Retrieved 6 June 2013.
107. ^Alexander Cockburn, 'A Mighty and Passionate Heart'Archived 27 September 2003 at the Wayback Machine, Counterpunch
108. ^'A Late Style of Humanism', Field Day Review 1 (Dublin: 2005), http://oconnellhouse.nd.edu/assets/39753/sdeanefdr.pdf
109. ^Christopher Hitchens, 'A Valediction for Edward Said'Slate, September 2003
110. ^Tony Judt, 'The Rootless Cosmopolitan', The Nation
111. ^Michael Wood, On Edward Said, London Review of Books, 23 October 2003, accessed 5 January 2010.
112. ^Tariq Ali, 'Remembering Edward Said (1935–2003)'Archived 15 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine, The New Left Review
113. ^Birzeit University, Edward Said National Conservatory of Music.
114. ^'Conference: Waiting for the Barbarians: A Tribute to Edward Said.'Archived 13 February 2010 at the Wayback Machine 25–26 May 2007. Bogazici University. European Journal of Turkish Studies. Ejts.org. Accessed 5 January 2010.
115. ^Jorgen Jensehausen, 'Review: 'Waiting for the Barbarians'Journal of Peace Research Vol. 46 No. 3 May 2009. Accessed 5 January 2010.

Sources

• Barsamian, David (2003). Culture and Resistance: Conversations with Edward W. Said. Pluto. ISBN9780745320175.
• Cornwell, John (2010). Newman's Unquiet Grave: The Reluctant Saint. Continuum International. ISBN9781441150844.
• Joachim Gentz (2009). 'Orientalism/Occidentalism'. Keywords re-oriented. interKULTUR, European-Chinese intercultural studies, Volume IV. Universitätsverlag Göttingen. pp. 41–. ISBN978-3-940344-86-1. Retrieved 18 November 2011.
• Ghazoul, Ferial Jabouri, ed. (2007). Edward Said and Critical Decolonization. American University in Cairo Press. ISBN978-977-416-087-5. Retrieved 19 November 2011. Edward W. Said (1935–2003) was one of the most influential intellectuals in the twentieth century.
• Gray, Richard T.; Gross, Ruth V.; Goebel, Rolf J.; et al., eds. (2005). A Franz Kafka encyclopedia. Greenwood. ISBN978-0-313-30375-3. Retrieved 18 November 2011.
• Iskander, Adel; Rustom, Hakem (2010). Edward Said: A Legacy of Emancipation and Representation. University of California Press. ISBN978-0-520-24546-4.
• McCarthy, Conor (2010). The Cambridge Introduction to Edward Said. Cambridge UP. ISBN9781139491402.
• Said, Edward W. (1979). Orientalism. Knopf Doubleday. ISBN9780394740676.
• Said, Edward W. (1996). Peace and Its Discontents: Essays on Palestine in the Middle East Peace Process. Vintage Books. ISBN9780679767251.
• Singh, Amritjit; Johnson, Bruce G., eds. (2004). Interviews with Edward W. Said. UP of Mississippi. ISBN9781578063666.
• Turner, Bryan S; Rojek, Chris (2001). Society and Culture: Scarcity and Solidarity. SAGE. ISBN9780761970491.
• Zamir, Shamoon (2005). 'Said, Edward W.'. In Jones, Lindsay (ed.). Encyclopedia of Religion, Second Edition. 12. Macmillan. pp. 8031–32.

Further reading

• Pannian, Prasad (20 January 2016). Edward Said and the Question of Subjectivity. New York and London: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN9781137548641.Edward Said and the Question of Subjectivity at Google Books.
• Valerie Kennedy Edward Said: A Critical Introduction. Key Contemporary Thinkers. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2000.
• Conor McCarthy The Cambridge Introduction to Edward Said. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
• Andrew N. Rubin, editor, Humanism, Freedom, and the Critic: Edward W. Said and After. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 2005.

Edward Said States

External links

• Edward Said on IMDb
• Review of Reflections on Exile and Other Essays and Edward Said: The Last Interview, in Other Voices, vol. 3, no. 1.
• Works by Edward Said at Open Library
• Appearances on C-SPAN